Kashmir Before 1947 – Complete History From Ancient Dynasties to Dogra Rule

From Ancient Valleys to Empires: A Complete History of Kashmir

Few lands in the world hold the mystique and depth of Kashmir, a region nestled among snow-capped mountains, fertile valleys, and rivers that have witnessed the rise and fall of empires for over two millennia. Many have wondered what the history of Kashmir was like, or what Kashmir before 1947 was all about.

As Kashmir continues to evolve, often in directions we neither anticipated nor desired, it becomes ever more vital to reflect honestly on the true history of our nation. Since 1947, the narratives surrounding Kashmir have shifted dramatically shaped by politics, external influences, and changing borders. In this process, much of our rich cultural and historical identity has begun to fade, sometimes deliberately erased through displacement and ethnic cleansing in certain parts of the region.

Our aim is to reconnect with Kashmir’s authentic roots to trace our story back to the earliest mentions of this land in history, before modern narratives reshaped it. To do so, we have drawn upon oral histories from our elders, documented accounts from pre-1947 sources, and respected historical works that capture the essence of Kashmir before its fragmentation. Through old books, journals, archival reports, and family records passed down through generations, we seek to preserve the memory of a Kashmir that once stood united in spirit, culture, and faith.

The History of Kashmir before 1947

This work is rooted in the Kashmir Welfare Foundation’s ongoing research into the history, heritage, and cultural identity of Kashmir. Over time, these truths have been diluted, sometimes intentionally by political ideologies and external narratives seeking to redefine the region’s story.

The result has been devastating: a gradual erosion of Kashmir’s once-strong sense of identity, leaving generations disconnected from their ancestral roots.

When Kashmiris today attempt to rediscover their origins, they are often met with fragmented accounts or politically filtered versions of history. Accurate, unbiased sources are scarce, especially on digital platforms.

To address this, our team has spent over two years conducting meticulous research gathering oral histories, verifying archival material, and engaging with elders within the British Kashmiri diaspora, including one said to be over 110 years old, whose memories offered rare glimpses into pre-Partition Kashmir.

Our mission is clear: to build an authentic, accessible, and accurate archive for Kashmiris seeking to rediscover their roots, and for British Kashmiris wishing to reconnect with their cultural heritage. Through this effort, we aim to preserve not only history, but the very essence of what it means to be Kashmiri the values, resilience, and legacy that have endured through centuries.

The history of Kashmir is not merely political; it is the story of faith, art, and resilience that shaped one of South Asia’s most culturally rich civilisations.

From the early Hindu dynasties of Lalitaditya to the Sufi Sultanate of Shah Mir, from the Mughal gardens of Jahangir to the Dogra rulers under British suzerainty, every era has added a new layer to the Kashmiri identity.

This comprehensive look at Kashmir’s past spanning from ancient times to 1947 traces how kingdoms, conquerors, and culture intertwined to create the valley’s unique heritage.

The Early Hindu Dynasties (c. 300 BCE – 1320 CE)

The earliest glimpse of Kashmir’s ancient history comes from Rajatarangini (The River of Kings), composed in the 12th century by Kalhana, known as one of Asia’s greatest chroniclers. In his verses, he describes Kashmir as a land created by divine will once a vast lake drained by Sage Kashyapa, after whom it took its name. Whilst many believe that Kashmir existed long before this, the resources of that age could not be verified.

The Gonanda Lineage

The Gonanda dynasty, partly mythic, partly historical, marks the beginning of Kashmir’s royal tradition. These early rulers established the foundations of administration and trade, linking the valley with neighbouring regions like Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and India) and Kamboja (Afghanistan).

The Karkota Dynasty (7th – 9th century CE)

Kashmir reached a golden age under the Karkota dynasty, particularly during the reign of Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. 724–760 CE). Lalitaditya was a said to be a remarkable monarch and empire-builder, extending his influence into Central Asia, Punjab, and Tibet. Under his rule, Srinagar became a vibrant capital adorned with grand temples such as the Martand Sun Temple, a marvel of early Kashmiri architecture.

His reign ushered in a period of cultural synthesis, Buddhist monasteries flourished beside Hindu shrines, Sanskrit scholars debated philosophy, and artisans traded silk, saffron, and shawls along the Silk Route. This period was well documented for that time of history.

Utpala and Lohara Dynasties (9th – 14th century CE)

Following the decline of the Karkotas, the Utpala and later Lohara dynasties governed Kashmir.
These centuries witnessed both prosperity and political turbulence. Queen Didda (958–1003 CE), an exceptional woman ruler, maintained stability through diplomacy and strategic alliances. Her strong leadership challenged patriarchal norms in medieval Asia.

Under the Loharas, especially King Suhadeva, Kashmir became a hub of learning, but internal strife and external threats grew. Kashmir started to gain global traction due to its thirst of knowledge. Belief was strong, but people started to question, analyse and assess different aspects of life. It is said that in this era, Kashmir was a powerhouse of knowledge of ancient medicine and spirituality. The thirst was knowledge was strong.

By the early 14th century, Central Asian influences increased and the valley stood on the threshold of a new chapter: the dawn of Islam in Kashmir.

🪶 Cultural Legacy:
The ancient era gave birth to Kashmir’s foundational culture rooted in Hindu-Buddhist philosophy, temple art, Sanskrit scholarship, and cross-Himalayan trade. These centuries forged the intellectual spirit that continues to echo in Kashmiri poetry and spiritual thought.

The Mongol Empire – The Empire That Never Ruled Kashmir

For historic reference, The Mongol Empire, founded in 1206 CE by Genghis Khan, rose from the steppes of Central Asia to become the largest contiguous land empire in world history.

At its height between 1270 and 1300 CE, under rulers like Kublai Khan, it stretched from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan, and from Siberia to Persia and the Indian subcontinent. Though the Mongols never directly ruled Kashmir, their vast empire reshaped trade, migration, and knowledge networks across Asia.

The major cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Herat, once key hubs of Mongol and post-Mongol scholarship, became vital crossroads for traders, artisans, and Sufi missionaries who later travelled southward into the Indian subcontinent. By 1405 CE, following the death of Timur (Tamerlane), the empire had fragmented into successor states, leaving behind a legacy of cultural exchange that bridged China, Central Asia, and South Asia.

For Kashmir, this period, spanning the 13th and 14th centuries coincided with the decline of the Lohara dynasty and the rise of the Shah Mir Sultanate (1320 CE). While the Mongol conquests disrupted older trade routes and political networks, they also opened new corridors for ideas, knowledge, and spirituality to flow into the valley.

The movement of scholars, merchants, and mystics from the former Mongol heartlands introduced Persian language, art, and Islamic scholarship to the region, setting the stage for Kashmir’s transformation into a centre of Sufi learning and cultural fusion. Thus, though separated by mountains and empires, the Mongol era indirectly shaped the intellectual and spiritual awakening of medieval Kashmir, linking it to a broader Eurasian world.

The Kashmir Sultanate (1320 – 1586 CE)

The fall of the Lohara dynasty paved the way for a transformative period, the rise of the Kashmir Sultanate. It was the perfect time as the thirst was knowledge was strong. Spirituality was at a high level. People were in search of the truth.

In 1320 CE, Shah Mir, a noble of probable Dardic or Turkic descent, ascended the throne and founded the Shah Mir dynasty, marking the beginning of Muslim rule in Kashmir.

The Arrival of Islam

Islam’s arrival was gradual, guided not by conquest but by Sufi saints and scholars. Figures like Bulbul Shah and later Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Shah-e-Hamadan) introduced Islam through spiritual example and ethical teaching, not force. Like we mentioned earlier, this was a perfect time as the thirst for knowledge and true spirituality was increasing. People were looking looking to discover their inner-self.

Their message of tawheed (oneness of God) and ihsan (compassion) resonated deeply with the valley’s people, blending with local traditions of asceticism and mysticism.

Shah Mir Dynasty

Under the Shah Mir rulers, the Persian language and culture began to take deep root in Kashmir. Persian soon became not only the language of administration and courtly affairs, but also the medium of poetry, literature, and scholarship. Shah Mir is said to have entered Kashmir through the the Northern areas, modern day Tajikistan. This was one of the Silk Routes of those times going through Kashmir and into India.

Architecture too reflected this growing influence blending Iranian and Central Asian design elements such as elegant domes, finely carved woodwork, and intricate calligraphy that adorned mosques, palaces, and public buildings throughout the valley.

During this time, Kashmir became intellectually and spiritually connected to the great centres of Islamic learning in Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Historical records and oral traditions point to close cultural exchanges with the cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, where Islamic knowledge and scholarship flourished at their highest levels.

These were the same cities that produced towering figures such as Imam Muslim and Imam al-Bukhari, the eminent compilers of Sahih Muslim and Sahih al-Bukhari, two of the most authentic collections of Hadith in Islamic tradition.

The influence of such scholarship reached Kashmir through scholars, traders, and Sufi mystics who carried both learning and light to distant lands.

Within Kashmir itself, Hindu and Buddhist communities, long established and intellectually sophisticated, initially viewed this rapid transformation with uncertainty. The swift spread of Islam across towns and villages puzzled many, for it was not a conquest of arms, but of hearts and minds. Contrary to colonial-era misrepresentations, Islam in Kashmir was not spread by the sword, it was spread through knowledge, compassion, and the spiritual magnetism of Sufi saints.

The Kashmiris of that age were open to more knowledge, their thirst was strong.

The valley’s people, already rich in philosophical curiosity, found resonance in the message of Tawheed (oneness of God) and the universal values of justice, humility, and love taught by the early Muslim scholars and mystics. Their depth of understanding and spirituality fulfilled a thirst for truth that had existed in the Kashmiri soul for centuries, giving birth to a faith deeply rooted in learning, devotion, and peace.

Zain-ul-Abidin — The People’s King (1420 – 1470 CE)

Among the many rulers of the Kashmiri Sultanate, none shines more brightly than Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, lovingly remembered by his people as Budshah “The Great King.” His remarkable reign of nearly fifty years stands as one of the most celebrated chapters in Kashmir’s history, often described as the golden age of peace, prosperity, and cultural renaissance.

Succeeding a period marked by turbulence and sectarian strain, Budshah envisioned a Kashmir rooted in justice, learning, and tolerance. He worked tirelessly to rebuild a sense of harmony among his subjects.

Temples that had been destroyed or neglected in earlier conflicts were restored with royal patronage, while new mosques, khanqahs (Sufi lodges), and educational institutions were constructed, symbols of an inclusive vision that allowed Hindus, Muslims, and Buddhists alike to thrive. His rule was defined not by conquest, but by compassion.

Note: We mentioned Khanqahs (Sufi Lodges) above, these attracted more sufis to come to Kashmir from other parts of the world, some places where Muslims were being persecuted. Some also came to kashmir as an escape from the Mongol Empire. The Mongals were never able to enter Kashmir.

Under his guidance, arts, literature, and crafts flourished like never before. Budshah invited master artisans from Iran, Central Asia, and Turkestan to settle in Kashmir, turning the valley into a living workshop of beauty and creativity.

These craftsmen introduced delicate techniques such as papier-mâché, fine carpet weaving, intricate wood carving, and the weaving of luxurious pashmina shawls, traditions that still define Kashmiri craftsmanship centuries later. The fusion of Persian finesse with Kashmiri imagination produced an artistic identity that became renowned across the Islamic world.

This cultural revival was not limited to craftsmanship alone. Knowledge became the foundation of his vision. Scholars, poets, and theologians found patronage at his court, and intellectual exchange reached new heights. Budshah established schools, libraries, and hospitals, ensuring that both education and healthcare were accessible to his people, rare achievements in the medieval world.

He also introduced administrative reforms, codified laws, and abolished oppressive taxes, laying the groundwork for a just and efficient governance system.

In the reign of Zain-ul-Abidin, knowledge, spirituality, and creativity intertwined seamlessly. Learning opened the mind, spiritual reflection refined the soul, and creativity gave both a tangible form. The result was a society deeply rooted in faith yet open to innovation, a rare balance that made Kashmir a beacon of tolerance and enlightenment in the wider region.

Even centuries later, the legacy of Budshah endures not only in the artistic genius of Kashmiri craftsmen, but in the collective memory of a people who still speak his name with reverence. His vision reminds us that true kingship lies not in domination, but in service in nurturing the hearts, minds, and dignity of one’s people.

Kashmir’s Hidden Treasures

One of the lesser-known yet remarkable achievements of the Shah Mir Dynasty was the discovery and preservation of Kashmir’s natural treasures, hidden deep within its mountains and valleys.

Historical sources and oral traditions speak of precious stones, rare sapphires, rubies, emeralds, gold deposits, silver veins, turquoise, and other minerals found across the region. These treasures reflected the valley’s geological richness and divine beauty.

The rulers of the Sultanate viewed these natural endowments not as personal possessions, but as the collective wealth of the Kashmiri people. It was declared that these treasures would never be exported for personal gain, nor surrendered to foreign powers. Instead, they were to remain within Kashmir’s borders as a symbol of national pride and self-sufficiency.

The Sultanate saw in them not luxury, but responsibility. A means to uplift the Kashmiri nation, strengthen its economy, and preserve its autonomy.

These jewels, gold reserves, and rare minerals were used selectively and purposefully traded only in exchange for knowledge, scholarship, books, and technology that could enrich the minds and crafts of the Kashmiri people.

According to historic references, the Shah Mir rulers were the only dynasty in Kashmir’s history that chose not to exploit these resources for individual power or opulence. Instead, their approach was guided by principles of trust, stewardship, and long-term vision: that true wealth lay not in the glitter of gemstones, but in the illumination of intellect and faith.

This philosophy, to trade material treasure for spiritual and intellectual enrichment, became a defining mark of the Sultanate’s moral character. It reflected their understanding that the greatest inheritance for future generations was not gold or jewels, but education, wisdom, and unity, the enduring treasures of a just and enlightened society.

🌿 Cultural Legacy:
The Sultanate period created the distinct Kashmiri-Islamic identity, a blend of Persian sophistication, Sufi spirituality, and indigenous tradition. The roots of the famed Kashmiri crafts and Sufi music (shrines, qawwali, and poetry) lie in this era.

The Mughal Period (1586 – 1752 CE)

In 1586, after a prolonged campaign, Emperor Akbar annexed Kashmir into the vast Mughal Empire, ending the independent sultanate. To the Mughals, Kashmir was the crown jewel of Asian, a paradise of mountains, lakes, and gardens that reflected the grandeur of their empire. The Mughals also saw that Kashmir was rich in natural resources waiting to be exploited.

Akbar and Jahangir’s Kashmir

Akbar integrated the valley into his administration, introducing land reforms and ensuring relative stability. Yet it was his son, Jahangir, who immortalised Kashmir in art and literature.

On his visits to the valley with Empress Nur Jahan, Jahangir famously proclaimed:

“If there is a paradise on earth, it is this, it is this, it is this.”

Under the Mughals, Kashmir saw the construction of majestic gardens, Shalimar Bagh, Nishat Bagh, Chashma Shahi, and Pari Mahal, masterpieces that combined Persian garden design with local aesthetics. Caravans of poets, calligraphers, and painters followed in their wake, bringing Mughal art and architecture to new heights.

Society and Administration

The Mughal governors (subedars) administered Kashmir with typical imperial precision, maintaining order, collecting taxes, and fostering trade in saffron, shawls, paper, and fine arts that connected the valley with the wider Mughal economy. Persian remained the official language of governance and scholarship, continuing the literary traditions established centuries earlier. Beneath the grandeur of imperial rule, however, Kashmiri culture retained its own rhythm and authenticity.

While the Mughals left their mark through architecture, gardens, and artistic refinement, they could never truly reshape the spiritual and cultural identity forged during the Shah Mir dynasty. That earlier era had planted the seeds of Kashmir’s distinctive Islamic–Persian–Sufi culture, one that merged scholarship, spirituality, and artistry into daily life. Even under the weight of Mughal splendour, this foundation endured, guiding the valley’s values, language, and aesthetics.

In essence, the Shah Mir legacy had become too deeply rooted to be displaced. The Mughals might have adorned Kashmir’s surface with imperial elegance, but the soul of the region, its Sufi devotion, poetic expression, and communal harmony, remained unmistakably Kashmiri. No dynasty that followed could erase the cultural force born in that formative Sultanate age.

Decline of Mughal Authority

By the 18th century, the Mughal Empire weakened due to internal conflicts and invasions. In 1752, their governor Muin-ul-Mulk could no longer resist the rising power from the northwest, the Afghan Durrani Empire.

🌸 Cultural Legacy:
The Mughals left a lasting imprint on Kashmir’s landscape and aesthetic imagination, from Persian poetry to Mughal gardens that symbolise harmony between humanity and nature. Their fascination with the valley introduced Kashmir to the broader world as a land of divine beauty.

The Afghan Durrani Rule (1752 – 1819 CE)

Following the decline of the Mughal Empire, Ahmad Shah Durrani, the formidable founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire, conquered Kashmir in 1752. What began as a promise of stability soon turned into an era remembered for hardship, exploitation, and decline.

The Durrani Interest in kashmir

It is said that the Durrani Empire’s interest in Kashmir was driven not only by its strategic geography but also by its immense natural wealth. The valley’s mountains and rivers concealed rich deposits of precious stones, gold, silver, sapphires, and fertile lands, treasures that made Kashmir one of the most desirable regions in the northern subcontinent.

To the Durranis, this was not merely a territory to rule, but a valuable asset to finance their expanding empire.

The Afghan rulers viewed Kashmir as a source of revenue and power, exploiting its natural resources to fund their military ambitions. Historical accounts suggest that the jewels, minerals, and agricultural produce extracted from Kashmir were transported to Kabul and Kandahar, where they were sold or traded to generate wealth for the empire. The proceeds were then used to expand their influence across South and Central Asia, to purchase weaponry, strengthen their armies, and extend their control over neighbouring territories.

This extractive approach, however, came at a devastating cost to the Kashmiri people. The Durrani administration prioritised profit over welfare, draining the valley’s resources while neglecting its infrastructure and culture. The once self-sufficient economy of Kashmir became heavily burdened under the weight of external exploitation and relentless taxation. What had been regarded under earlier dynasties such as the Shah Mirs, as sacred wealth belonging to the people, became under Afghan rule a means of imperial expansion and oppression.

Thus, while the Durrani Empire enriched its coffers and extended its reach, Kashmir’s prosperity declined sharply, its artisans scattered, and its natural treasures were stripped away from those to whom they truly belonged the Kashmiri people themselves.

Durrani Administration

The Durrani rulers, governing from distant Kabul, appointed Afghan governors to oversee the valley, men more concerned with extracting wealth than ensuring justice. Under their administration, heavy taxation, forced labour, and relentless levies became the norm. The once-prosperous Kashmiri peasantry found themselves impoverished, their fertile lands yielding little more than despair.

The consequences of this misrule were profound. Artisans and craftsmen, who had once been the pride of Kashmiri culture under Budshah and the Mughals, began to flee the valley. Seeking refuge and better opportunities, many migrated to the Punjab plains, taking with them generations of artistic knowledge and skill.

Workshops that once hummed with the making of fine shawls, carpets, and papier-mâché ornaments fell silent. The markets of Srinagar, once bustling with trade, languished under oppression. Even the famed shawl industry, a symbol of Kashmiri excellence, suffered as unfair taxation and monopolies strangled its growth.

The spiritual and cultural life of the region also waned. Mosques, madrasas, and shrines that were once supported by royal endowments and community patronage fell into neglect. With little investment in public welfare or infrastructure, education declined and poverty deepened.

Yet, in this bleak environment, faith and spirituality became the people’s refuge. The teachings of Sufi saints, the gatherings at khanqahs (spiritual lodges), and the traditions of zikr (remembrance) helped preserve a sense of unity among the masses. These spaces became sanctuaries where the oppressed sought solace, the hungry found compassion, and the forgotten rediscovered dignity.

In many ways, it was the endurance of Sufi Islam that held Kashmir together during these difficult decades. Spiritual leaders emphasised patience (sabr), resilience (istiqamah), and remembrance of God (dhikr) as the path to survival.

People turned inward, clinging to faith as a means of emotional and cultural preservation. This quiet spiritual resistance became a defining feature of Kashmiri identity, an unyielding belief that even under oppression, the light of knowledge and faith could not be extinguished.

When the Afghan grip eventually weakened in the early 19th century, what remained was a wounded land, yet one still held together by the invisible threads of belief, brotherhood, and hope. The Kashmiri culture was still strong, not impacted by the Afghan Durranis.

⚖️ Cultural Legacy:
The Afghan period is often seen as a dark chapter in Kashmir’s medieval history, yet it reinforced the enduring endurance of its people, the ability to maintain faith, language, and culture even under foreign domination.

The Sikh Empire (1819 – 1846 CE)

In 1819, the course of Kashmir’s history shifted once again when General Hari Singh Nalwa, the formidable commander of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, marched his forces through the valley and defeated the Afghan Durrani governors. This decisive victory brought an end to over six decades of Afghan domination and marked the beginning of the Sikh Empire’s rule over Kashmir.

By that time, the Afghan Durrani regime had become universally despised. Its heavy taxation, brutal enforcement, and lack of local governance had alienated nearly every section of Kashmiri society. The Afghan rulers, administering from faraway Kabul, had never truly managed to understand or integrate with the valley’s unique cultural and spiritual fabric.

Despite their long tenure, the Durranis had failed to win the hearts of the Kashmiri people. Resistance took many forms from open defiance and refusal to cooperate, to subtle acts of spiritual and cultural resilience that preserved the valley’s identity beneath the weight of tyranny.

When news spread of the Sikh army’s approach, many Kashmiris saw it as positive intervention, a long-awaited end to decades of hardship.

Initially, the Sikh conquest was met with cautious relief. The people hoped that new rulers would bring peace, justice, and reform. For a brief moment, optimism filled the air: the fall of the Afghans promised an end to oppression, and the arrival of the Sikh forces was seen as a chance for renewal.

However, those hopes soon gave way to disappointment as the nature of the new administration unfolded. The Sikh Empire, though far less cruel than its Afghan predecessors, governed Kashmir with a firm and centralised hand, viewing it as a strategic frontier province rather than an integral part of the empire.

Administration and Policy

The Sikh administration, led by appointed governors and subedars who reported directly to Lahore, was characterised by strict discipline and rigid control. The valley’s Muslim majority already impoverished by years of Afghan oppression, found themselves excluded from positions of influence.

Under the Dogra Raj, the historic land of Kashmir transitioned into a recognised Princely State, marking a new chapter in its long and complex history.

Muslims were systematically barred from major administrative and judicial roles, and religious freedoms were curtailed. Restrictions were placed on the use of mosques, the call to prayer (adhan) was sometimes suppressed, and religious endowments (waqf) were heavily taxed or seized.

Economically, while trade and markets stabilised under Sikh rule, taxation remained oppressive for ordinary farmers. Revenue was collected in kind and cash, with harsh penalties for those who failed to meet quotas.

Still, compared to the preceding Afghan era, there was greater political order and less arbitrary violence. The Sikh governors maintained law and order effectively, keeping routes open and ensuring caravans could move more safely. Yet, Kashmir was still treated largely as a remote possession, its wealth channelled toward Lahore rather than reinvested in local prosperity.

Seeds of Modern Change

Despite these constraints, the Sikh period did introduce a few elements of modernisation that would later shape the region’s administrative evolution. New roads, bridges, and forts were constructed to secure trade and troop movement. Basic infrastructure improvements made parts of the valley more accessible, while early attempts at record-keeping and land management brought a degree of structure to governance. The Shankaracharya Hill Fort was reinforced; military garrisons were established to monitor the northern frontiers; and a semblance of bureaucratic order began to emerge.

Though these developments were primarily driven by military and strategic interests, they inadvertently laid the groundwork for what would become Kashmir’s transition into a modern princely state. When the Sikh Empire eventually weakened after Ranjit Singh’s death, and the Dogra rulers rose to power under British oversight, they inherited this nascent framework of roads, posts, and revenue systems.

Thus, the Sikh era, harsh yet structured, became a bridge between two worlds: the medieval systems of empire and the modern administrative state that followed.

🕊️ Cultural Legacy:
The Sikh era, though short, marked a transition from medieval to modern Kashmir, setting the stage for political restructuring and the eventual formation of the princely state under Dogra rule.

The Dogra Dynasty — The Princely State of Jammu & Kashmir (1846 – 1947 CE)

The Sikh Empire was one of the most powerful forces in North India after the decline of the Mughals and Afghans. At its peak, it stretched from Peshawar in the west to the Sutlej River in the east, encompassing Punjab, parts of present-day Pakistan, and Kashmir.

The British East India Company, already expanding its control across the Indian subcontinent, seized the opportunity to exploit the chaos. The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) broke out after tensions along the Sutlej frontier, culminating in the defeat of the Sikh forces at key battles such as Mudki, Ferozeshah, and Sobraon.

The resulting Treaty of Lahore (March 1846) forced the Sikhs to surrender large territories and pay a heavy indemnity to the British.

Unable to meet the full financial demand, the Sikh government offered to cede Kashmir and surrounding hill territories as part of the payment. The British, seeking to avoid direct rule in such a remote and mountainous region, sold these territories to Raja Gulab Singh, the powerful Dogra ruler of Jammu who had remained largely neutral during the war.

This agreement was formalised in the Treaty of Amritsar (16 March 1846), under which Gulab Singh purchased Kashmir for 7.5 million Nanakshahee rupees and became the Maharaja of the new princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Thus, the fall of the Sikh Empire directly paved the way for Dogra rule in Kashmir. The region, once part of the Lahore kingdom, now became a semi-autonomous princely state under British suzerainty ruled by the Dogra dynasty but ultimately overseen by the British Crown. This marked the beginning of a new era in Kashmir’s history, one defined by modern administration, infrastructural reform, and rising political consciousness, yet shadowed by the complexities of colonial influence.

The British Control of India

When the British gradually took control of India during the 18th and 19th centuries, Kashmir stood as a neighbouring region watching the subcontinent undergo immense change. What began with the British East India Company’s dominance after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 evolved into the full British Raj by 1858, reshaping the political and economic landscape of South Asia.

From beyond its mountain frontiers, Kashmir observed how the British dismantled centuries-old empires such as Mughal, Maratha, and Sikh and replacing them with a new colonial order rooted in trade, technology, and administration.

Though not directly conquered, Kashmir’s fate became increasingly intertwined with the British Empire, especially after the fall of the Sikh Empire in 1846, when the Treaty of Amritsar effectively sold the region to the Dogra rulers under British suzerainty. From that point onward, Kashmir was no longer merely a neighbour to British India, but a princely state under its shadow.

The modern political entity known as Jammu and Kashmir emerged after the Treaty of Amritsar (1846).
Following the First Anglo-Sikh War, the British sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh, a Dogra general, for 7.5 million rupees. Thus began the Dogra dynasty, ruling under British suzerainty for a century.

Building the Dogra State

Gulab Singh expanded his domain to include Jammu, Kashmir Valley, Ladakh, Gilgit-Baltistan, and the present-day Azad Kashmir, forming one of the largest princely states in British India. His successors continued to consolidate power, build roads, and reform administration.

Ranbir Singh (1857–1885) established legal codes known as Ranbir Penal Code, promoted education, and improved postal services.

Pratap Singh (1885–1925) developed modern infrastructure — roads, irrigation, and schools.

Hari Singh (1925–1947), the last Maharaja, introduced social reforms, banned child marriage, and sought to modernise governance.

The Social Divide

Despite progress, the Dogra regime was dominated by a Hindu ruling class over a Muslim-majority population, leading to social inequality and rising discontent. They were also under heavy influence on the British Raj. The early 20th century saw the emergence of political consciousness among Kashmiri Muslims, culminating in movements demanding representation and justice, the forerunners of later political struggles.

🏛️ Cultural Legacy:
The Dogra century transformed Kashmir from a feudal land into a modern state. Roads linked Srinagar to Rawalpindi, schools nurtured new generations, and administration became centralised.
Yet beneath this modernisation simmered tensions that would shape the valley’s fate in 1947.

📜 Summary Timeline of Kashmir’s Historical Eras

Layers of Time, Spirit of Kashmir

From the temple-builders of Lalitaditya to the vision of Zain-ul-Abidin, from Mughal elegance to Dogra modernisation, Kashmir’s history reads like a long epic, each chapter marked by conquest and creativity, conflict and co-existence.

Across 2,300 years, this valley absorbed the wisdom of Hindu sages, Buddhist monks, Sufi saints, Persian poets, and Central Asian traders merging them into one timeless civilisation. It is this layering of cultures that makes Kashmir not just a place, but an idea — an enduring blend of devotion, beauty, and resilience.

For the next chapter of this story from Partition in 1947 to the present day, exploring the political transformations and aspirations that followed.